Wednesday, September 23, 2009
Tuesday, September 1, 2009
lepakshi images
Lord Shiva in his Court
Detail from a Lepakshi mural
Siva Kankalamurti
Detail from a Lepakshi mural
This sculpture, perhaps the most spectacular in the temple, is a classic depiction of Shiva as Kankala-murti. His feet are clad in wooden sandals, the right leg slightly bent forward in a gesture of movement. In one of his hands he holds the kankala-danda, placed horizontally on his shoulders. Another hand is in the kataka-mudra held near the mouth of a deer that rears up to it. Other hands hold a trisula and a damaru. Above his head is an elaborate makara-torana. His flowing jata spreads on either side of his mukuta. To his left is a bhuta-gana, carrying on his head a large bowl of rice. At the right edge of the pier is an image of a woman (probably Parvati) serving him rice with a ladle. The woman's dress is shown slipping down. Figures of gandharvas and rishis blessing Siva are above and to the right.
The murals at Lepakshi are the most important specimens of Vijayanagara pictorial art and illustrate the high level of artistic achievement reached in Vijayanagara. The paintings, recently restored, are in vibrant red, green, and ochre colours. Black floral patterns border the scenes on either side. This panel shows the marriage of Siva and Parvati. The seated figures as well as the maids in attendance on Parvati each have distinct hairstyles, dresses, and facial types.
This famous scene shows patrons and architects of the temple worshipping Siva and Parvati. Patrons are identified by the tall, conical and patterned brocade caps. Other sources identify this type of headgear with nobility or royalty. To show that they are walking on a hill peopel are shown litil tilted backside.
Most panels illustrate legends from the Ramayana, Mahabharata and Siva Purana. This animated scene narrates the hunting episode from the Kirata story. The boar is charging through the forest. A sage is shown fleeing together with antelopes, rabbit, and birds (above). On the right are hunters with bows and arrows.
Kiratarjuniya, Siva
This slightly damaged panel continues the Kirata story. The sages, still terrified, are shown reporting to Shiva (on the right).
Andhakasura
Siva slays andhakasura, while dieties and worshippers watch, worship, and appreciate in amazement. The floral borders are particularly elaborate and well-preserved on this panel.
rastra kutas
Rastra kutas (mid 8 c to 10 c A.D)
Two and a half century of Rashtrakuta rule, witnessed very high achievement in the field of sculpture and architecture. Now after more than a millennium whatever remains, is in dilapidated condition. Even then, Ellora and Elephanta caves provide splendid examples of that era which excelled in carving out huge monuments and monolithic sculptures. In Ellora (in Maharashtra), we have rock-cut cave-temples of all faiths then flourishing in India. Buddhist, Jaina, Shaiva and Vaishnava. Out of the thirty four caves twelve are Buddhist, (in the South) seventeen are Hindu (Vaishnava Shaiva and Shakta) and five caves on the northern side are Jaina.
Buddhistic architecture necessitated big Chaitya hall unobstructed by columns to accommodate big congregations and to offer mass prayers. Chaitya halls in Ajanta and Kanheri are such constructions. The Chaitya caves in Ellora signify a passing phase. Gigantic columns appear in front of the sanctum sanctorum where Buddha's image used to be installed.
Shiva and Rawana
Sculpture from Ellora shows Shiva suppressing the multi-headed, multi-armed Rawana
The Indrasabha and Jagannatha Sabha in four Jaina caves which contain images of Gommata, Shatinatha and Parshvanatha and Mahaveera are as magnificent as other structures which are Brahmanical. Shiva in Tandava dance is in rare atibhanga pose balanced delicately by four hands on eachside. The colossal image of river Ganga is described as last word in grace, dignity and poise. The Dhumar Lena (cave) of Ellora has striking resemblance to Elephanta cave-sanctuary. Dr. Burgess compared it to an Egyptian monument in majestic grandeur. The wedding scene of Shiva Parvati provides a visual representation of some immortal verses of Kumarasambhava epic of Kalidasa.
The Lord of Kailash
Kailash temple, Ellora
Cut out of a single rock the Kailas temple is an example of superb skill. The ground plan of this temple approximates in area that of the Parthenon of Athens and its height is one and a half time of the same Greek masterpiece. Percy Brown felt that it was a great spiritual achievement. “An illusion of one of those rare occasions when men's minds, hearts and hands worked in unison towards the consummation of a supreme ideal” he wrote.
The theme of Rawana (see also: Mr. Ten Heads -- Depiction of king Rawana in various forms of Indian art.) shaking the Kailasa mountain, Shiva-tandava, Shiva-Parvati playing chess are a favorite theme of sculptors of Ellora, Shiva Parvati figure along with ganas and different deities.
A View of a Cave Complex, Elephanta
Elephanta Island near Mumbai has Ardhanarishwara panel which is badly mutilated. The Portuguese had occupied it for sometime and as was their custom, they have destroyed many sculptures. The Trimurti or representation of Brahma, Vishnu and Maheshwara is stupendous. The threefold image is twenty three feet high and nineteen and a half feet broad. “The grandest representation of the pantheist God ever made by the hands of man”.
Elephanta, according to Sister Nivedita perpetuates the synthesis of Hinduism - "Three-in-one the Unity-in-Trinity".
Among Rashtrakuta rulers some had Shiva as their Titular deity, some had Vishnu and Amogavarsha Nrupatunga was a devout Jain. But inscriptions scattered throughout their vast empire bear witness to their munificent grants to Buddhism, Jaina, Shaiva and Vaishnava institutions. Keeping alive the great Indian tradition of religious toleration.
Two and a half century of Rashtrakuta rule, witnessed very high achievement in the field of sculpture and architecture. Now after more than a millennium whatever remains, is in dilapidated condition. Even then, Ellora and Elephanta caves provide splendid examples of that era which excelled in carving out huge monuments and monolithic sculptures. In Ellora (in Maharashtra), we have rock-cut cave-temples of all faiths then flourishing in India. Buddhist, Jaina, Shaiva and Vaishnava. Out of the thirty four caves twelve are Buddhist, (in the South) seventeen are Hindu (Vaishnava Shaiva and Shakta) and five caves on the northern side are Jaina.
Buddhistic architecture necessitated big Chaitya hall unobstructed by columns to accommodate big congregations and to offer mass prayers. Chaitya halls in Ajanta and Kanheri are such constructions. The Chaitya caves in Ellora signify a passing phase. Gigantic columns appear in front of the sanctum sanctorum where Buddha's image used to be installed.
Sculpture from Ellora shows Shiva suppressing the multi-headed, multi-armed Rawana
The Indrasabha and Jagannatha Sabha in four Jaina caves which contain images of Gommata, Shatinatha and Parshvanatha and Mahaveera are as magnificent as other structures which are Brahmanical. Shiva in Tandava dance is in rare atibhanga pose balanced delicately by four hands on eachside. The colossal image of river Ganga is described as last word in grace, dignity and poise. The Dhumar Lena (cave) of Ellora has striking resemblance to Elephanta cave-sanctuary. Dr. Burgess compared it to an Egyptian monument in majestic grandeur. The wedding scene of Shiva Parvati provides a visual representation of some immortal verses of Kumarasambhava epic of Kalidasa.
Kailash temple, Ellora
Cut out of a single rock the Kailas temple is an example of superb skill. The ground plan of this temple approximates in area that of the Parthenon of Athens and its height is one and a half time of the same Greek masterpiece. Percy Brown felt that it was a great spiritual achievement. “An illusion of one of those rare occasions when men's minds, hearts and hands worked in unison towards the consummation of a supreme ideal” he wrote.
The theme of Rawana (see also: Mr. Ten Heads -- Depiction of king Rawana in various forms of Indian art.) shaking the Kailasa mountain, Shiva-tandava, Shiva-Parvati playing chess are a favorite theme of sculptors of Ellora, Shiva Parvati figure along with ganas and different deities.
Elephanta Island near Mumbai has Ardhanarishwara panel which is badly mutilated. The Portuguese had occupied it for sometime and as was their custom, they have destroyed many sculptures. The Trimurti or representation of Brahma, Vishnu and Maheshwara is stupendous. The threefold image is twenty three feet high and nineteen and a half feet broad. “The grandest representation of the pantheist God ever made by the hands of man”.
Elephanta, according to Sister Nivedita perpetuates the synthesis of Hinduism - "Three-in-one the Unity-in-Trinity".
Among Rashtrakuta rulers some had Shiva as their Titular deity, some had Vishnu and Amogavarsha Nrupatunga was a devout Jain. But inscriptions scattered throughout their vast empire bear witness to their munificent grants to Buddhism, Jaina, Shaiva and Vaishnava institutions. Keeping alive the great Indian tradition of religious toleration.
iconography of shiva
iconography of lortd shiva:-
Lord Shiva represents the aspect of the Supreme Being (Brahman of the Upanishads) that continuously dissolves to recreate in the cyclic process of creation, preservation, dissolution and recreation of the universe. As stated earlier, Lord Shiva is the third member of the Hindu Trinity, the other two being Lord Brahma and Lord Vishnu.
Owing to His cosmic activity of dissolution and recreation, the words destroyer and destruction have been erroneously associated with Lord Shiva. This difficulty arises when people fail to grasp the true significance of His cosmic role. The creation sustains itself by a delicate balance between the opposing forces of good and evil. When this balance is disturbed and sustenance of life becomes impossible, Lord Shiva dissolves the universe for creation of the next cycle so that the unliberated souls will have another opportunity to liberate themselves from bondage with the physical world. Thus, Lord Shiva protects the souls from pain and suffering that would be caused by a dysfunctional universe. In analogous cyclic processes, winter is essential for spring to appear and the night is necessary for the morning to follow. To further illustrate, a goldsmith does not destroy gold when he melts old irreparable golden jewelry to create beautiful new ornaments.
Lord Shiva is the Lord of mercy and compassion. He protects devotees from evil forces such as lust, greed, and anger. He grants boons, bestows grace and awakens wisdom in His devotees. The symbolism discussed below includes major symbols that are common to all pictures and images of Shiva venerated by Hindus. Since the tasks of Lord Shiva are numerous, He cannot be symbolized in one form. For this reason the images of Shiva vary significantly in their symbolism.
The unclad body covered with ashes: the unclad body symbolizes the transcendental aspect of the Lord. Since most things reduce to ashes when burned, ashes symbolize the physical universe. The ashes on the unclad body of the Lord signify that Shiva is the source of the entire universe which emanates from Him, but He transcends the physical phenomena and is not affected by it.
Matted locks: Lord Shiva is the Master of yoga. The three matted locks on the head of the Lord convey the idea that integration of the physical, mental and spiritual energies is the ideal of yoga.
Ganga: Ganga (river Ganges) is associated with Hindu mythology and is the most sacred river of Hindus. According to tradition, one who bathes in Ganga (revered as Mother Ganga) in accordance with traditional rites and ceremonies on religious occasions in combination with certain astrological events, is freed from sin and attains knowledge, purity and peace. Ganga, symbolically represented on the head of the Lord by a female (Mother Ganga) with a jet of water emanating from her mouth and falling on the ground, signifies that the Lord destroys sin, removes ignorance, and bestows knowledge, purity and peace on the devotees.
The crescent moon: is shown on the side of the Lord's head as an ornament, and not as an integral part of His countenance. The waxing and waning phenomenon of the moon symbolizes the time cycle through which creation evolves from the beginning to the end. Since the Lord is the Eternal Reality, He is beyond time. Thus, the crescent moon is only one of His ornaments, and not an integral part of Him.
Three eyes: Lord Shiva, also called Tryambaka Deva (literally, "three-eyed Lord"), is depicted as having three eyes: the sun is His right eye, the moon the left eye and fire the third eye. The two eyes on the right and left indicate His activity in the physical world. The third eye in the center of the forehead symbolizes spiritual knowledge and power, and is thus called the eye of wisdom or knowledge. Like fire, the powerful gaze of Shiva's third eye annihilates evil, and thus the evil-doers fear His third eye.
Half-open eyes: when the Lord opens His eyes, a new cycle of creation emerges and when He closes them, the universe dissolves for creation of the next cycle. The half-open eyes convey the idea that creation is going through cyclic process, with no beginning and no end. Lord Shiva is the Master of Yoga, as He uses His yogic power to project the universe from Himself. The half-open eyes also symbolize His yogic posture.
Kundalas (two ear rings): two Kundalas, Alakshya (meaning "which cannot be shown by any sign") and Niranjan (meaning "which cannot be seen by mortal eyes") in the ears of the Lord signify that He is beyond ordinary perception. Since the kundala in the left ear of the Lord is of the type used by women and the one in His right ear is of the type used by men, these Kundalas also symbolize the Shiva and Shakti (male and female) principle of creation.
Snake around the neck: sages have used snakes to symbolize the yogic power of Lord Shiva with which He dissolves and recreates the universe. Like a yogi, a snake hoards nothing, carries nothing, builds nothing, lives on air alone for a long time, and lives in mountains and forests. The venom of a snake, therefore, symbolizes the yogic power.
A snake (Vasuki Naga): is shown curled three times around the neck of the Lord and is looking towards His right side. The three coils of the snake symbolize the past, present and future - time in cycles. The Lord wearing the curled snake like an ornament signifies that creation proceeds in cycles and is time dependent, but the Lord Himself transcends time. The right side of the body symbolizes the human activities based upon knowledge, reason and logic. The snake looking towards the right side of the Lord signifies that the Lord's eternal laws of reason and justice preserve natural order in the universe.
Rudraksha necklace: Rudra is another name of Shiva. Rudra also means "strict or uncompromising" and aksha means "eye." Rudraksha necklace worn by the Lord illustrates that He uses His cosmic laws firmly - without compromise - to maintain law and order in the universe. The necklace has 108 beads which symbolize the elements used in the creation of the world.
Varda Mudra: the Lord's right hand is shown in a boon- bestowing and blessing pose. As stated earlier, Lord Shiva annihilates evil, grants boons, bestows grace, destroys ignorance, and awakens wisdom in His devotees.
Trident (Trisula): a three-pronged trident shown adjacent to the Lord symbolizes His three fundamental powers (shakti) of will (iccha), action (kriya) and knowledge (jnana). The trident also symbolizes the Lord's power to destroy evil and ignorance.
Damaru (drum): a small drum with two sides separated from each other by a thin neck-like structure symbolizes the two utterly dissimilar states of existence, unmanifest and manifest. When a damaru is vibrated, it produces dissimilar sounds which are fused together by resonance to create one sound. The sound thus produced symbolizes Nada, the cosmic sound of AUM, which can be heard during deep meditation. According to Hindu scriptures, Nada is the source of creation.
Kamandalu: a water pot (Kamandalu) made from a dry pumpkin contains nectar and is shown on the ground next to Shiva. The process of making Kamandalu has deep spiritual significance. A ripe pumpkin is plucked from a plant, its fruit is removed and the shell is cleaned for containing the nectar. In the same way, an individual must break away from attachment to the physical world and clean his inner self of egoistic desires in order to experience the bliss of the Self, symbolized by the nectar in the Kamandalu.
Nandi: the bull is associated with Shiva and is said to be His vehicle. The bull symbolizes both power and ignorance. Lord Shiva's use of the bull as a vehicle conveys the idea that He removes ignorance and bestows power of wisdom on His devotees. The bull is called Vrisha in Sanskrit. Vrisha also means dharma (righteousness). Thus a bull shown next to Shiva also indicates that He is the etemal companion of righteousness.
Tiger skin: a tiger skin symbolizes potential energy. Lord Shiva, sitting on or wearing a tiger skin, illustrates the idea that He is the source of the creative energy that remains in potential form during the dissolution state of the universe. Of His own Divine Will, the Lord activates the potential form of the creative energy to project the universe in endless cycles.
Cremation ground: Shiva sitting in the cremation ground signifies that He is the controller of death in the physical world. Since birth and death are cyclic, controlling one implies controlling the other. Thus, Lord Shiva is revered as the ultimate controller of birth and death in the phenomenal world.
Lord Shiva represents the aspect of the Supreme Being (Brahman of the Upanishads) that continuously dissolves to recreate in the cyclic process of creation, preservation, dissolution and recreation of the universe. As stated earlier, Lord Shiva is the third member of the Hindu Trinity, the other two being Lord Brahma and Lord Vishnu.
Owing to His cosmic activity of dissolution and recreation, the words destroyer and destruction have been erroneously associated with Lord Shiva. This difficulty arises when people fail to grasp the true significance of His cosmic role. The creation sustains itself by a delicate balance between the opposing forces of good and evil. When this balance is disturbed and sustenance of life becomes impossible, Lord Shiva dissolves the universe for creation of the next cycle so that the unliberated souls will have another opportunity to liberate themselves from bondage with the physical world. Thus, Lord Shiva protects the souls from pain and suffering that would be caused by a dysfunctional universe. In analogous cyclic processes, winter is essential for spring to appear and the night is necessary for the morning to follow. To further illustrate, a goldsmith does not destroy gold when he melts old irreparable golden jewelry to create beautiful new ornaments.
Lord Shiva is the Lord of mercy and compassion. He protects devotees from evil forces such as lust, greed, and anger. He grants boons, bestows grace and awakens wisdom in His devotees. The symbolism discussed below includes major symbols that are common to all pictures and images of Shiva venerated by Hindus. Since the tasks of Lord Shiva are numerous, He cannot be symbolized in one form. For this reason the images of Shiva vary significantly in their symbolism.
The unclad body covered with ashes: the unclad body symbolizes the transcendental aspect of the Lord. Since most things reduce to ashes when burned, ashes symbolize the physical universe. The ashes on the unclad body of the Lord signify that Shiva is the source of the entire universe which emanates from Him, but He transcends the physical phenomena and is not affected by it.
Matted locks: Lord Shiva is the Master of yoga. The three matted locks on the head of the Lord convey the idea that integration of the physical, mental and spiritual energies is the ideal of yoga.
Ganga: Ganga (river Ganges) is associated with Hindu mythology and is the most sacred river of Hindus. According to tradition, one who bathes in Ganga (revered as Mother Ganga) in accordance with traditional rites and ceremonies on religious occasions in combination with certain astrological events, is freed from sin and attains knowledge, purity and peace. Ganga, symbolically represented on the head of the Lord by a female (Mother Ganga) with a jet of water emanating from her mouth and falling on the ground, signifies that the Lord destroys sin, removes ignorance, and bestows knowledge, purity and peace on the devotees.
The crescent moon: is shown on the side of the Lord's head as an ornament, and not as an integral part of His countenance. The waxing and waning phenomenon of the moon symbolizes the time cycle through which creation evolves from the beginning to the end. Since the Lord is the Eternal Reality, He is beyond time. Thus, the crescent moon is only one of His ornaments, and not an integral part of Him.
Three eyes: Lord Shiva, also called Tryambaka Deva (literally, "three-eyed Lord"), is depicted as having three eyes: the sun is His right eye, the moon the left eye and fire the third eye. The two eyes on the right and left indicate His activity in the physical world. The third eye in the center of the forehead symbolizes spiritual knowledge and power, and is thus called the eye of wisdom or knowledge. Like fire, the powerful gaze of Shiva's third eye annihilates evil, and thus the evil-doers fear His third eye.
Half-open eyes: when the Lord opens His eyes, a new cycle of creation emerges and when He closes them, the universe dissolves for creation of the next cycle. The half-open eyes convey the idea that creation is going through cyclic process, with no beginning and no end. Lord Shiva is the Master of Yoga, as He uses His yogic power to project the universe from Himself. The half-open eyes also symbolize His yogic posture.
Kundalas (two ear rings): two Kundalas, Alakshya (meaning "which cannot be shown by any sign") and Niranjan (meaning "which cannot be seen by mortal eyes") in the ears of the Lord signify that He is beyond ordinary perception. Since the kundala in the left ear of the Lord is of the type used by women and the one in His right ear is of the type used by men, these Kundalas also symbolize the Shiva and Shakti (male and female) principle of creation.
Snake around the neck: sages have used snakes to symbolize the yogic power of Lord Shiva with which He dissolves and recreates the universe. Like a yogi, a snake hoards nothing, carries nothing, builds nothing, lives on air alone for a long time, and lives in mountains and forests. The venom of a snake, therefore, symbolizes the yogic power.
A snake (Vasuki Naga): is shown curled three times around the neck of the Lord and is looking towards His right side. The three coils of the snake symbolize the past, present and future - time in cycles. The Lord wearing the curled snake like an ornament signifies that creation proceeds in cycles and is time dependent, but the Lord Himself transcends time. The right side of the body symbolizes the human activities based upon knowledge, reason and logic. The snake looking towards the right side of the Lord signifies that the Lord's eternal laws of reason and justice preserve natural order in the universe.
Rudraksha necklace: Rudra is another name of Shiva. Rudra also means "strict or uncompromising" and aksha means "eye." Rudraksha necklace worn by the Lord illustrates that He uses His cosmic laws firmly - without compromise - to maintain law and order in the universe. The necklace has 108 beads which symbolize the elements used in the creation of the world.
Varda Mudra: the Lord's right hand is shown in a boon- bestowing and blessing pose. As stated earlier, Lord Shiva annihilates evil, grants boons, bestows grace, destroys ignorance, and awakens wisdom in His devotees.
Trident (Trisula): a three-pronged trident shown adjacent to the Lord symbolizes His three fundamental powers (shakti) of will (iccha), action (kriya) and knowledge (jnana). The trident also symbolizes the Lord's power to destroy evil and ignorance.
Damaru (drum): a small drum with two sides separated from each other by a thin neck-like structure symbolizes the two utterly dissimilar states of existence, unmanifest and manifest. When a damaru is vibrated, it produces dissimilar sounds which are fused together by resonance to create one sound. The sound thus produced symbolizes Nada, the cosmic sound of AUM, which can be heard during deep meditation. According to Hindu scriptures, Nada is the source of creation.
Kamandalu: a water pot (Kamandalu) made from a dry pumpkin contains nectar and is shown on the ground next to Shiva. The process of making Kamandalu has deep spiritual significance. A ripe pumpkin is plucked from a plant, its fruit is removed and the shell is cleaned for containing the nectar. In the same way, an individual must break away from attachment to the physical world and clean his inner self of egoistic desires in order to experience the bliss of the Self, symbolized by the nectar in the Kamandalu.
Nandi: the bull is associated with Shiva and is said to be His vehicle. The bull symbolizes both power and ignorance. Lord Shiva's use of the bull as a vehicle conveys the idea that He removes ignorance and bestows power of wisdom on His devotees. The bull is called Vrisha in Sanskrit. Vrisha also means dharma (righteousness). Thus a bull shown next to Shiva also indicates that He is the etemal companion of righteousness.
Tiger skin: a tiger skin symbolizes potential energy. Lord Shiva, sitting on or wearing a tiger skin, illustrates the idea that He is the source of the creative energy that remains in potential form during the dissolution state of the universe. Of His own Divine Will, the Lord activates the potential form of the creative energy to project the universe in endless cycles.
Cremation ground: Shiva sitting in the cremation ground signifies that He is the controller of death in the physical world. Since birth and death are cyclic, controlling one implies controlling the other. Thus, Lord Shiva is revered as the ultimate controller of birth and death in the phenomenal world.
Vishnu Iconography
Vishnu - Iconography
According to various Purana, Vishnu is the ultimate omnipresent reality, is shapeless and omnipresent. However, a strict iconography governs His representation, whether in pictures, icons, or idols:
He is to be depicted as a four-armed male-form: The four arms indicate his all-powerful and all-pervasive nature. The physical existence of Vishnu is represented by the two arms in the front while the two arms at the back represent his presence in the spiritual world. The Upanishad titled Gopal Uttartapani describes the four arms of Vishnu.
The color of his skin has to be new-cloud-like-blue: The blue color indicates his all-pervasive nature, blue being the color of the infinite sky as well as the infinite ocean on which he resides.
He has the mark of sage Bhrigu's feet on his chest.
Also on his chest is the srivatsa mark, symbolising his consort Lakshmi.
A crown should adorn his head: The crown symbolizes his supreme authority.
He is to shown wearing two earrings: The earrings represent inherent opposites in creation - knowledge and ignorance; happiness and unhappiness; pleasure and pain.
Vishnu is always to be depicted holding the four attributes associated with him, being:
A conch shell or Shankhya, named "Panchajanya", held by the lower right hand, which represents creativity. The Panchajanya is the originator of the five elements or Panchabhoota - water, fire, air, earth and sky or space. The sound that evolves from blowing this conch is the primeval sound of creation.
The chakra, a sharp-spinning discus-like weapon, named "Sudarshana", held by the upper right hand, which symbolizes the mind. The name Sudarshana is derived from two words - Su, which means good, and Darshan, which means vision. The chakra as a weapon thus indicates the necessity of destroying one's ego and illusory self-existence and developing the vision to identify the eternal truth. The discus has six spokes and symbolizes a lotus with six petals, thus representing the power that controls all six seasons.
A mace or Gada, named "Kaumodaki", held by the lower left hand, which represents individual existence. The mace symbolizes the primeval force from which all mental and physical strength is derived.
A lotus flower or Padma, held by the upper left hand, which represents liberation or dispersion. The lotus symbolizes the power from which the universe emerges. It represents the concentration of truth or Satya, the originator of the rules of conduct or Dharma, and knowledge or Gyana in a single symbol.
In general, Vishnu is depicted in one of the following two forms:
Standing upright on a lotus flower, often with Lakshmi, His consort, beside him on a similar pedestal;
Reclining on the coiled-up thousand-hooded Shesha Naga, with his consort Lakshmi, seated at his feet; the assemblage rests on the "Kshira Sagar" (ocean of Milk). In this representation, Brahma is depicted as sitting on a lotus that grows out of Vishnu's navel.
A slightly less seen depiction of Vishnu is the Vishwaroop representation. The Vishwaroop originates from the words Vishwa which means the cosmos and Roop which means form or manifestation. This grand depiction is the representation of his essence being magnified to contain the entire cosmos. The root for this depiction is probably derived from the ancient Hindu philosophy which indicates that through the diversities of creation there always is a connecting essence that threads everything into a unified whole. The Vishwaroop depiction shows Vishnu as having seven heads on each of his left and right. Each of these has its own cosmic function or represents an aspect of the cosmos. The gods depicted include Shiva, Brahma, Ganesha, Hanuman, Indra, Agni (Fire God), Surya (Sun God), Chandra (Moon God), Maruta (Wind God), Kubera (God of wealth), Varuna (God of water) and Yama (Time) and Brahma's three sons. Vishnu retains the central position. While Shiva, Brahma and Vishnu together form the Hindu Trinity, Ganesha and Hanuman represent faith and divinity. Agni or Fire represents life, energy and vitality. Maruta, the wind-god represents space, while Indra represents rains and cosmic balance. Yama depicts the infinite nature of time while Varuna the ocean God represents water. Kubera represents prosperity and riches. The Sun and Moon represent the cycle of birth, death, decay and finally dissolution. Brahma's three sons represent the entire mankind. Taken together as one entity they constitute the entire cosmos.
Sri Viswaroopa Panchamukha Hanuman is also shown as having five heads, each head potraying an incarnation of Vishnu. The east facing is Hanuman. The north facing in Lord Narasimha. The west facing is Lord Garuda. The south facing is Lord Varaha. The sky facing is Lord Hayagriva.
Note that Vishnu per se is never portrayed in anthropomorphic forms. Attributing anthrompormorphic characteristics to Vishnu is a common misconception held by non-Hindus.
According to various Purana, Vishnu is the ultimate omnipresent reality, is shapeless and omnipresent. However, a strict iconography governs His representation, whether in pictures, icons, or idols:
He is to be depicted as a four-armed male-form: The four arms indicate his all-powerful and all-pervasive nature. The physical existence of Vishnu is represented by the two arms in the front while the two arms at the back represent his presence in the spiritual world. The Upanishad titled Gopal Uttartapani describes the four arms of Vishnu.
The color of his skin has to be new-cloud-like-blue: The blue color indicates his all-pervasive nature, blue being the color of the infinite sky as well as the infinite ocean on which he resides.
He has the mark of sage Bhrigu's feet on his chest.
Also on his chest is the srivatsa mark, symbolising his consort Lakshmi.
A crown should adorn his head: The crown symbolizes his supreme authority.
He is to shown wearing two earrings: The earrings represent inherent opposites in creation - knowledge and ignorance; happiness and unhappiness; pleasure and pain.
Vishnu is always to be depicted holding the four attributes associated with him, being:
A conch shell or Shankhya, named "Panchajanya", held by the lower right hand, which represents creativity. The Panchajanya is the originator of the five elements or Panchabhoota - water, fire, air, earth and sky or space. The sound that evolves from blowing this conch is the primeval sound of creation.
The chakra, a sharp-spinning discus-like weapon, named "Sudarshana", held by the upper right hand, which symbolizes the mind. The name Sudarshana is derived from two words - Su, which means good, and Darshan, which means vision. The chakra as a weapon thus indicates the necessity of destroying one's ego and illusory self-existence and developing the vision to identify the eternal truth. The discus has six spokes and symbolizes a lotus with six petals, thus representing the power that controls all six seasons.
A mace or Gada, named "Kaumodaki", held by the lower left hand, which represents individual existence. The mace symbolizes the primeval force from which all mental and physical strength is derived.
A lotus flower or Padma, held by the upper left hand, which represents liberation or dispersion. The lotus symbolizes the power from which the universe emerges. It represents the concentration of truth or Satya, the originator of the rules of conduct or Dharma, and knowledge or Gyana in a single symbol.
In general, Vishnu is depicted in one of the following two forms:
Standing upright on a lotus flower, often with Lakshmi, His consort, beside him on a similar pedestal;
Reclining on the coiled-up thousand-hooded Shesha Naga, with his consort Lakshmi, seated at his feet; the assemblage rests on the "Kshira Sagar" (ocean of Milk). In this representation, Brahma is depicted as sitting on a lotus that grows out of Vishnu's navel.
A slightly less seen depiction of Vishnu is the Vishwaroop representation. The Vishwaroop originates from the words Vishwa which means the cosmos and Roop which means form or manifestation. This grand depiction is the representation of his essence being magnified to contain the entire cosmos. The root for this depiction is probably derived from the ancient Hindu philosophy which indicates that through the diversities of creation there always is a connecting essence that threads everything into a unified whole. The Vishwaroop depiction shows Vishnu as having seven heads on each of his left and right. Each of these has its own cosmic function or represents an aspect of the cosmos. The gods depicted include Shiva, Brahma, Ganesha, Hanuman, Indra, Agni (Fire God), Surya (Sun God), Chandra (Moon God), Maruta (Wind God), Kubera (God of wealth), Varuna (God of water) and Yama (Time) and Brahma's three sons. Vishnu retains the central position. While Shiva, Brahma and Vishnu together form the Hindu Trinity, Ganesha and Hanuman represent faith and divinity. Agni or Fire represents life, energy and vitality. Maruta, the wind-god represents space, while Indra represents rains and cosmic balance. Yama depicts the infinite nature of time while Varuna the ocean God represents water. Kubera represents prosperity and riches. The Sun and Moon represent the cycle of birth, death, decay and finally dissolution. Brahma's three sons represent the entire mankind. Taken together as one entity they constitute the entire cosmos.
Sri Viswaroopa Panchamukha Hanuman is also shown as having five heads, each head potraying an incarnation of Vishnu. The east facing is Hanuman. The north facing in Lord Narasimha. The west facing is Lord Garuda. The south facing is Lord Varaha. The sky facing is Lord Hayagriva.
Note that Vishnu per se is never portrayed in anthropomorphic forms. Attributing anthrompormorphic characteristics to Vishnu is a common misconception held by non-Hindus.
Iconography
Iconography:-Iconography is the branch of art history which studies the identification, description, and the interpretation of the content of images. The word iconography literally means "image writing", and comes from the Greek εἰκών "image" and γράφειν "to write". A secondary meaning is the painting of icons in the Byzantine and Orthodox Christian tradition. The term is also used in many academic fields other than art history, for example semiotics and media studies, and in general usage, for the content of images, the typical depiction in images of a subject, and related senses. Sometimes distinctions have been made between Iconology and Iconography, although the definitions and so the distinction made varies.
Iconography in religious art
Religious images are used to some extent by all major religions, including both Indian and Abrahamic faiths, and often contain highly complex iconography, which reflects centuries of accumulated tradition.
Iconography in Indian religions:-
Central to the iconography and hagiography of Indian religions are mudra or gestures with specific meanings. Other features include the aureola and halo, also found in Christian and Islamic art, and divine qualities and attributes represented by asana and ritual tools such as the dharmachakra, vajra, dadar, chhatra, sauwastika, phurba and danda. The symbolic use of colour to denote the Classical Elements or Mahabhuta and letters and bija syllables from sacred alphabetic scripts are other features. Under the influence of tantra art developed esoteric meanings, accessible only to initiates; this is an especially strong feature of Tibetan art.
Although iconic depictions of, or concentrating on, a single figure are the dominant type of Buddhist image, large stone relief or fresco narrative cycles of the Life of the Buddha, or tales of his previous lives, are found at major sites like Sarnath, Ajanta, and Borobudor, especially in earler periods. Conversely, in Hindu art, narrative scenes have become rather more common in recent centuries, especially in miniature paintings of the lives of Krishna and Rama.
Christian iconography:-
Christian art began, about two centuries after Christ, by borrowing motifs from Roman Imperial imagery, classical Greek and Roman religion and popular art - the motif of Christ in Majesty owes something to both Imperial portraits and depictions of Zeus. In the Late Antique period iconography began to be standardised, and to relate more closely to Biblical texts, although many gaps in the canonical Gospel narratives were plugged with matter from the apocryphal gospels. Eventually the Church would succeed in weeding most of these out, but some remain, like the ox and ass in the Nativity of Christ.
The Theotokos of Tikhvin of ca. 1300, an example of the Hodegetria type of Madonna and Child.After the period of Byzantine iconoclasm iconographical innovation was regarded as unhealthy, if not heretical, in the Eastern Church, though it still continued at a glacial pace. More than in the West, traditional depictions were often considered to have authentic or miraculous origins, and the job of the artist was to copy them with as little deviation as possible. The Eastern church also never accepted the use of monumental high relief or free-standing sculpture, which it found too reminiscent of paganism. Most modern Eastern Orthodox icons are very close to their predecessors of a thousand years ago, though development, and some shifts in meaning, have occurred - for example the old man wearing a fleece in conversation with Saint Joseph usually seen in Orthodox Nativities seems to have begun as one of the shepherds, or the prophet Isaiah, but is now usually understood as the "Tempter" (Satan).
In both East and West, numerous iconic types of Christ, Mary and saints and other subjects were developed; the number of named types of icons of Mary, with or without the infant Christ, was especially large in the East, whereas Christ Pantocrator was much the commonest image of Christ. Especially important depictions of Mary include the Hodegetria and Panagia types. Traditional models evolved for narrative paintings, including large cycles covering the events of the Life of Christ, the Life of the Virgin, parts of the Old Testament, and, increasingly, the lives of popular saints. Especially in the West, a system of attributes developed for identifying individual figures of saints by a standard appearance and symbolic objects held by them; in the East they were more likely to identified by text labels.
From the Romanesque period sculpture on churches became increasingly important in Western art, and probably partly because of the lack of Byzantine models, became the location of much iconographic innovation, along with the illuminated manuscript, which had already taken a decisively different direction from Byzantine equivalents, under the influence of Insular art and other factors. Developments in theology and devotional practice produced innovations like the subject of the Coronation of the Virgin and the Assumption, both associated with the Franciscans, as were many other developments. Most painters remained content to copy and slightly modify the works of others, and it is clear that the clergy, by whom or for whose churches most art was commissioned, often specified what they wanted shown in great detail.
The theory of typology, by which the meaning of most events of the Old Testament was understood as a "type" or pre-figuring of an event in the life of, or aspect of, Christ or Mary was often reflected in art, and in the later Middle Ages came to dominate the choice of Old Testament scenes in Western Christian art.
Robert Campin's Mérode Altarpiece of 1425-28 has a highly complex iconography that is still debated. Is Joseph making a mousetrap, reflecting a remark of Saint Augustine that Christ's Incarnation was a trap to catch men's souls?Whereas in the Romanesque and Gothic periods the great majority of religious art was intended to convey often complex religious messages as clearly as possible, with the arrival of Early Netherlandish painting iconography became highly sophisticated, and in many cases appears to be deliberately enigmatic, even for a well-educated contemporary. The subtle layers of meaning uncovered by modern iconographical research in works of Robert Campin such as the Mérode Altarpiece, and of Jan van Eyck such as the Madonna of Chancellor Rolin and the Washington Annunciation lie in small details of what are on first viewing very conventional representations. When Italian painting developed a taste for enigma, considerably later, it most often showed in secular compositions influenced by Renaissance Neo-Platonism.
From the 15th century religious painting gradually freed itself from the habit of following earlier compositional models, and by the 16th century ambitious artists were expected to find novel compositions for each subject, and direct borrowings from earlier artists are more often of the poses of individual figures than of whole compositions. The Reformation soon restricted most Protestant religious painting to Biblical scenes conceived along the lines of history painting, and after some decades the Catholic Council of Trent reined in somewhat the freedom of Catholic artists.
Iconography in religious art
Religious images are used to some extent by all major religions, including both Indian and Abrahamic faiths, and often contain highly complex iconography, which reflects centuries of accumulated tradition.
Iconography in Indian religions:-
Central to the iconography and hagiography of Indian religions are mudra or gestures with specific meanings. Other features include the aureola and halo, also found in Christian and Islamic art, and divine qualities and attributes represented by asana and ritual tools such as the dharmachakra, vajra, dadar, chhatra, sauwastika, phurba and danda. The symbolic use of colour to denote the Classical Elements or Mahabhuta and letters and bija syllables from sacred alphabetic scripts are other features. Under the influence of tantra art developed esoteric meanings, accessible only to initiates; this is an especially strong feature of Tibetan art.
Although iconic depictions of, or concentrating on, a single figure are the dominant type of Buddhist image, large stone relief or fresco narrative cycles of the Life of the Buddha, or tales of his previous lives, are found at major sites like Sarnath, Ajanta, and Borobudor, especially in earler periods. Conversely, in Hindu art, narrative scenes have become rather more common in recent centuries, especially in miniature paintings of the lives of Krishna and Rama.
Christian iconography:-
Christian art began, about two centuries after Christ, by borrowing motifs from Roman Imperial imagery, classical Greek and Roman religion and popular art - the motif of Christ in Majesty owes something to both Imperial portraits and depictions of Zeus. In the Late Antique period iconography began to be standardised, and to relate more closely to Biblical texts, although many gaps in the canonical Gospel narratives were plugged with matter from the apocryphal gospels. Eventually the Church would succeed in weeding most of these out, but some remain, like the ox and ass in the Nativity of Christ.
The Theotokos of Tikhvin of ca. 1300, an example of the Hodegetria type of Madonna and Child.After the period of Byzantine iconoclasm iconographical innovation was regarded as unhealthy, if not heretical, in the Eastern Church, though it still continued at a glacial pace. More than in the West, traditional depictions were often considered to have authentic or miraculous origins, and the job of the artist was to copy them with as little deviation as possible. The Eastern church also never accepted the use of monumental high relief or free-standing sculpture, which it found too reminiscent of paganism. Most modern Eastern Orthodox icons are very close to their predecessors of a thousand years ago, though development, and some shifts in meaning, have occurred - for example the old man wearing a fleece in conversation with Saint Joseph usually seen in Orthodox Nativities seems to have begun as one of the shepherds, or the prophet Isaiah, but is now usually understood as the "Tempter" (Satan).
In both East and West, numerous iconic types of Christ, Mary and saints and other subjects were developed; the number of named types of icons of Mary, with or without the infant Christ, was especially large in the East, whereas Christ Pantocrator was much the commonest image of Christ. Especially important depictions of Mary include the Hodegetria and Panagia types. Traditional models evolved for narrative paintings, including large cycles covering the events of the Life of Christ, the Life of the Virgin, parts of the Old Testament, and, increasingly, the lives of popular saints. Especially in the West, a system of attributes developed for identifying individual figures of saints by a standard appearance and symbolic objects held by them; in the East they were more likely to identified by text labels.
From the Romanesque period sculpture on churches became increasingly important in Western art, and probably partly because of the lack of Byzantine models, became the location of much iconographic innovation, along with the illuminated manuscript, which had already taken a decisively different direction from Byzantine equivalents, under the influence of Insular art and other factors. Developments in theology and devotional practice produced innovations like the subject of the Coronation of the Virgin and the Assumption, both associated with the Franciscans, as were many other developments. Most painters remained content to copy and slightly modify the works of others, and it is clear that the clergy, by whom or for whose churches most art was commissioned, often specified what they wanted shown in great detail.
The theory of typology, by which the meaning of most events of the Old Testament was understood as a "type" or pre-figuring of an event in the life of, or aspect of, Christ or Mary was often reflected in art, and in the later Middle Ages came to dominate the choice of Old Testament scenes in Western Christian art.
Robert Campin's Mérode Altarpiece of 1425-28 has a highly complex iconography that is still debated. Is Joseph making a mousetrap, reflecting a remark of Saint Augustine that Christ's Incarnation was a trap to catch men's souls?Whereas in the Romanesque and Gothic periods the great majority of religious art was intended to convey often complex religious messages as clearly as possible, with the arrival of Early Netherlandish painting iconography became highly sophisticated, and in many cases appears to be deliberately enigmatic, even for a well-educated contemporary. The subtle layers of meaning uncovered by modern iconographical research in works of Robert Campin such as the Mérode Altarpiece, and of Jan van Eyck such as the Madonna of Chancellor Rolin and the Washington Annunciation lie in small details of what are on first viewing very conventional representations. When Italian painting developed a taste for enigma, considerably later, it most often showed in secular compositions influenced by Renaissance Neo-Platonism.
From the 15th century religious painting gradually freed itself from the habit of following earlier compositional models, and by the 16th century ambitious artists were expected to find novel compositions for each subject, and direct borrowings from earlier artists are more often of the poses of individual figures than of whole compositions. The Reformation soon restricted most Protestant religious painting to Biblical scenes conceived along the lines of history painting, and after some decades the Catholic Council of Trent reined in somewhat the freedom of Catholic artists.
Saturday, August 29, 2009
The Chalukyan art
The Chalukyan art
The Pampanath temple in Pattadakal. The Chalukya rulers have left behind a wealth of temple architecture in Aihole, Badami and Pattadakal, all neighbouring villages in Bagalkot district of Karnataka.
WHO designed the first Hindu temples? Who constructed them? Where were they built? What were they made of? Why did successive rulers make them more and more magnificent? These are some interesting questions relating to temple architectural history.
The eighteen-armed Nataraja, in a rock-cut temple in Badami.
One comes across three principal types of temple architecture that were prevalent in different parts of India around the same period. Between A.D. 320 and A.D. 650, the Gupta Kings started building temples in North and Central India in what is known as the Indo-Aryan Nagara style of architecture.
In the south, kings built temples in the Dravidian style. One finds the earliest surviving Dravidian temples near Mamallapuram (Mahabalipuram, 60 km south of Chennai). These were built around A.D. 500. This style flourished for centuries and reached its zenith when the massive structures in Madurai and Rameswaram were built, around A.D. 1600.
The Virupaksha temple in Pattadakal, built around A.D. 740.
The Chalukyan style originated in Aihole around A.D. 450 and was perfected in the neighbouring villages of Badami and Pattadakal (all in Bagalkot district of Karnataka). Chalukyan artists experimented with different styles, blended the Indo-Aryan Nagara and Dravidian styles, and evolved their own distinctive style. One can see magnificent examples of their earliest works in Aihole, Badami and Pattadakal. These certainly are not the earliest temples. Temples were constructed centuries before the 4th and 5th century A.D., but with wood and bricks and have not survived.
The massive temples in South India today give the impression that there were no large temples in North and Central India. There were, in fact, big temples in North and Central India, too. But repeated invasions, pilferage and destruction over the years devastated most of them. Thus, we do not find in North and Central India the equals of the grand temples of South India which was comparatively free of frequent foreign invasions and enabled successive rulers to add to the work of their predecessors.
The Lad Khan temple in Aihole, which was built around the 7th century A.D.
THE Chalukya rulers of Vatapi (as Badami was then known) ruled the central Deccan from A.D. 540 to A.D. 757. They were great patrons of art and architecture. They have left behind a wealth of temple architecture in Aihole, Badami and Pattadakal. Since these areas do not lie on the major tourist routes and are not well-connected with the major cities, they have not received the prominence they deserve.
The architectural style that developed in this part is known as the Chalukyan style (to distinguish it from the Dravidian style, more common to Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and so on). Why did South Indian rulers build temples of such magnitude and why did their successors make continuous additions to the work? Certainly not solely because of their faith in religion. Perhaps they wanted to overawe their enemies and subjects with an enormous show of wealth and power, represented by these temples. Or perhaps they wanted to impress their subjects with a show of love for the religion. Or perhaps they wanted to atone for the sins they had committed by killing innumerable innocent people in the bloody wars they fought. The temples were built by teams of architects, artists, sculptors and masons, who remain anonymous.
Dwarpal in a Badami temple.
Aihole, a small village on the banks of the Malaprabha river, was the cradle of ancient Hindu temple architecture. There are over 70 temple structures scattered around the village. These structures clearly show the experimentation with different styles undertaken by the artisans. It was here that the artisans worked on the rocks to create the earliest rock-cut shrines based on Buddhist monuments. It was here that they experimented with different styles, abandoning some and adopting others. From the earliest rock-cut shrines, the artisans graduated to the full-fledged Chalukyan style of architecture.
Ravana Phadi is one of the oldest rock-cut temples in Aihole. There is a Sivalinga in the inner room (cella or sanctum sanctorum, where the idol of the deity is kept). The walls and sides of the temple are covered with large figures. The sculptures are superb - especially that of dancing Siva. The Huchchimalligudi temple is one of the earliest in Aihole. A significant feature of it is the addition of a room to the old temple structure, which had only an inner room and a hall. The room was added between the sanctum sanctorum and the hall.
The water tank in the temple complex in Badami.
One of the most impressive temples here is the Durga temple, which dates back to the 7th century A.D. This is actually a Hindu adaptation of the Buddhist Chaitya Hall with a rounded end. The temple has perforated windows and a statue of Mahishasuravardhini - Durga destroying the demon Mahishasura. This was constructed in a new style, but subsequently abandoned.
The Durga temple in Aihole.
The Lad Khan temple was also built around the 7th century A.D. It is a unique temple, with a surprising resemblance to the Parliament House. It is believed that this structure was not meant to be a temple but a meeting place.
BADAMI is now a small town located at the mouth of a ravine between two steep hills. It was the original capital of the Chalukya empire founded by Pulakesin I in the 6th century A.D. Here are four beautiful rock-cut temples carved out of sandstone hills. Each has a square sanctum, a hall with pillars, and a pillared verandah. The halls have exquisite carvings and sculptures.
Mahavira, in one of the rock-cut temples of Badami.
Of the four temples, the fourth is actually a Jain temple. It has a statue of Mahavira.
Rock-cut caves in Badami.
Among the masterpieces in these rock-cut temples is the famous 18-armed statue of Nataraja (Siva in the dancing pose). If one observes it closely, one will see Nataraja in 81 different dancing poses.
Pattadakal is another small village on the banks of the Malaprabha. This place was considered to be very auspicious and holy. The Chalukya kings were crowned here. During the middle of the 7th century, temple building activity shifted from Badami to Pattadakal. There are 10 temples here, four in the northern or Indo-Aryan Nagara style and six in the Chalukyan style. Here one finds an intermingling of the two styles. A look at the Pampanath temple shows its disproportionate dimensions. The height is much too low. This style, too, was abandoned.
Vishnu, Badami.
The Mallikarjuna, and the larger Virupaksha, temples were built around A.D. 740, by Trailokyamahadevi and Lokamahadevi, the two queens of Vikramaditya II, to commemorate their husband's victory over Nandivarman, the Pallava king of Kancheepuram. Vikramaditya II brought artisans from Kancheepuram. The Virupaksha temple clearly shows the influence of the Kancheepuram style.
Guides will tell tourists that Aihole is considered a school of architecture, Badami a degree college, and Pattadakal, a university of architecture. In 1987, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) included Pattadakal in its list of World Heritage sites.
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